The Global Slavery Index 2023

Spotlights 4 

​Guardians and Offenders: Examining State-Imposed Forced Labour (Part 2)

Abuse of conscription 
Conscription constitutes state-imposed forced labour where conscripts are forced to perform work of a non-military nature. Abuse of conscription is evident in Egypt, Eritrea, Mali, and Mongolia. In 2022, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea reported that the Eritrean national service systematically subjects conscripts to forced labour. This followed a 2015 investigation by the United Nations Commission of Inquiry, which found that the national service effectively served to “abuse, exploit and enslave” citizens. Forced labour in the national service is reported in the construction of roads, dams, and mines, teaching, and other sectors. Young people in their final year of secondary school are forced to combine exam preparation and military training at the Sawa military camp, with many also made to perform agricultural work on surrounding farms owned by government and military officials, and are later conscripted directly into the national service. In addition to intensive forced labour, conscripts receive harsh punishments and abuse, with females also experiencing sexual violence and harassment. Eritreans who flee to evade forced conscription, including unaccompanied children, face heightened vulnerability to modern slavery along dangerous migration routes in addition to the threat of detention, torture, and extrajudicial killing if they are caught. 

Compulsory labour for the purpose of economic development, and abuse of the obligation to perform work beyond normal civic obligations or minor communal services 

States may perpetrate forced labour through abuse of the obligation to perform work beyond normal civic duties. This is reported in Myanmar, for example, where members of Chin and Rakhine ethnic groups report being forced to work by military forces (Tatmadaw) as labourers and porters. In 2019, four villages in Chin state were required to supply one worker per family to transport food rations for the military. Rohingya were also reportedly forced to construct security camps for the Tatmadaw under inhumane conditions and the threat of violence. In 2020, disturbing evidence emerged of children being forced by the Tatmadaw to clear landmines and work in portering, with some children reportedly used as human shields. 

Compulsory labour is also exacted by state authorities for the purpose of economic development. In Turkmenistan, workers and students are forced to participate in the annual cotton harvest, which runs from September to November, for little or no compensation or under the threat of punishment. Public sector workers including doctors and teachers are enlisted to pick cotton, or are made to send others in their place. The private sector may also be required to supply workers, while vulnerable groups such as migrants and students are also forced to work. An estimated 198,000 metric tonnes of cotton are produced in Turkmenistan per year, making cotton the fourth most valuable export for the government. The cotton — and the state-imposed forced labour through which it is harvested — enters the global market through complex supply chains. Activists such as the Cotton Campaign are increasing pressure on the government to reform this system and call on other governments to adopt robust import controls and businesses to avoiding sourcing Turkmen cotton. 

In Rwanda, compulsory labour is present in Umuganda, a national community service that takes place once every month. While Umuganda is widely believed to benefit the community, the practice is compulsory for those age 18 to 65 years and failure to participate may result in a fine or other penalty under Law No. 53/2007 Establishing Community Works in Rwanda. While the prescription of fines in practice is unclear, the law establishes a threat of penalty for non-participation. In 2021, CEACR requested that the Rwandan government ensure community works are limited to “minor services” in line with international standards. 

While there is much progress yet to be made, there were significant positive developments since 2018. In Uzbekistan, following years of collaboration with the ILO and civil society, a global boycott of Uzbek cotton, and a commitment from the government to end its use of forced labour in the annual cotton harvest, independent civil society monitoring by the Uzbek Forum for Human Rights found that no forced labour was imposed by the central government in 2021. In 2022 however, the Forum reported that despite firm political will to prevent forced labour, risks persist in the tightly controlled cotton harvest due to pressure to meet production targets. Continued engagement is needed to create an enabling environment for labour rights by strengthening civic participation and protections for freedom of association and expression. 

Walk Free 2023. Global Slavery Index 2023. Minderoo Foundation Ltd. Australia.